LB 
1075 


UC-NRLF 


SB    17    DEE 


BULLETIN 


OF  THE 


Winthrop  Normal  and 
Industrial  College 

OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA 

Bulletin  No.  2  DECEMBER,  1911  Volume  V 

MENTAL  FATIGUE  AND 
SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 


An  Experimental  Study  in  Winthrop  Train- 
ing School  and  Other  Schools  in 
South  Carolina 


BY 
L.  A.  ROBINSON,  Ph.  D. 

(Former  Superintendent  Winthrop  Training  School) 


The  R.  L.  Bryan  Company 

Columbia,  S.  C. 

1912 


LBI075 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 

In  this  study  we  have  attempted  to  stick  to  facts  as  we 
found  them  whether  they  fit  our  preconceived  notion  of 
fatigue  or  not.  If  these  facts  as  here  presented  give  the 
reader  a  clearer  view  of  the  working  ability  of  school  children, 
or  if  they  stimulate  the  teacher  to  more  efficient  service,  or  if 
they  encourage  the  educator  to  present  criticism  or  additional 
data  for  the  improvement  of  this  treatise  the  effort  expended 
in  its  preparation  will  have  been  repaid. 

I  wish  to  thank  President  D.  B.  Johnson,  of  Winthrop 
College,  and  the  teachers  of  classes  in  Winthrop  Training 
School  and  in  the  Rock  Hill  and  the  Fort  Mill  schools  wherfe 
the  tests  were  given,  for  their  kind  co-operation  and  assistance 
in  securing  data.  Special  credit  is  also  due  to  Dr.  Paul  R. 
Radosavljevich,  of  New  York  University,  for  his  constant  aid 
in  this  investigation.  L,.  A.  R. 


280151 


CONTENTS. 

INTRODUCTION —  PAGE: 

Physical  Tests 7 

Psycho-Physical  Tests 8 

Mental  Tests   8 

EXPERIMENTS  IN  SOUTH  CAROLINA — 

The  Problem 11 

Method  of  Procedure 11 

First  Series  of  Short  Tests 12 

Second  Series  of  Tests 18 

Importance  of  Tests  of  Continuous  Effort 21 

Summary  of  Results  of  Arithmetical  Tests 22 

Tests  for  Continuous  Effort 23 

Results  of  Tests  in  the  Ninth  Grade 24 

Tabulated  Results  in  the  Eighth  Grade 25 

Rhythmic  Fluctuation  in  Efficiency 27 

Efficiency  at  Different  Periods  of  the  Day 27 

Mental   Inertia 28 

Mental   Stimulations 30 

Effects  of  Interruptions 33 

Effects  of  Gymnastics 37 

Effects  of  Singing , 38 

Effects  of  Recesses 39 

Effects  of  Lunches 42 

Question  of  Overpressure 44 

SUMMARY  OF  CONCLUSIONS  AND  PEDAGOGICAL  APPLICA- 
TIONS    46 

APPENDIX  . ,  ,52 


INTRODUCTION. 


Mental  fatigue  refers  to  the  incapacity  for  doing  mental 
work  as  a  result  of  excessive  effort.  The  subjective  feeling 
of  ennui  or  weariness  is  no  longer  accepted  as  an  adequate 
measurement  of  fatigue.  Frequently  it  happens  that  when 
we  feel  the  least  like  work  we  are  really  quite  capable  of  it. 
Upon  the  other  hand  the  feeling  of  capability  for  a  task  is  no 
absolute  proof  that  we  are  able.  Nearly  every  one  has  an 
opinion  of  fatigue  based  upon  his  own  subjective  feelings,  and 
yet  so  varied  are  these  opinions  and  so  contradictory  to  objec- 
tive facts  that  little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  them.  This  was 
shown  by  the  publication  of  "Remarks  on  replies  by  teachers 
to  questionaire  respecting  mental  fatigue"  in  1888  by  Sir 
Francis  Galton.  This  inquiry  showed  the  need  of  objective 
measurements  for  determining  mental  fatigue.  Such  meas- 
urements may  be  classified  as  (1)  physical  tests,  '(2)  psycho- 
physical  tests,  and  (3)  mental  tests. 

(1)  Physical  Tests. — Many  investigators  have  assumed  or 
have  sought  to  discover  a  direct  relationship  between  muscular 
and  mental  efficiency,  and  upon  this  basis  have  attempted  to 
measure  mental  fatigue.  In  this  field  Mosso  (89)  may  be 
considered  the  pioneer.  He  and  Maggiora  carried  on  similar 
tests  on  students  and  lecturers  before  and  after  mental  efforts. 
For  this  purpose  Mosso  had  devised  the  ergograph  for  meas- 
uring the  ability  of  the  finger  to  persist  in  the  lifting  of  an 
attached  weight.  Neither  of  these  men  found  positive  evi- 
dence of  excessive  fatigue.  Extensive  experiments  have  been 
carried  on  by  German  investigators  with  the  ergograph,  and 
some  have  claimed  very  positive  indications  of  fatigue  in 
school  children.  The  more  recent  experiments  of  Ellis  and 
Shipe,  University  of  Texas  (35),  and  other  investigators,  fail 
to  indicate  any  school  fatigue  with  the  use  of  the  ergograph. 
Under  the  present  status  of  doubt  in  regard  to  the  co-variation 
of  physical  strength  and  mental  efficiency,  it  is  impossible  to 

89.  Mosso,  A. — Fatigue.     Translated  by  Drummond. 

35.  American  Journal  of  Psychology,   Vol.   14,   1903,   pp.   232-245. 


8  WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

accept  the  ergograph  as  a  means  of  measuring  mental  fatigue 
until  verification  of  its  value  is  made  by  further  experimenta- 
tion. The  same  may  be  said  of  the  dynamometer,  which  has 
been  used  for  a  like  purpose.  That  there  is  a  physical  basis 
for  psychical  activity  has  been  indicated  frequently  enough, 
but  just  what  the  relation  is  has  not  been  so  easy  to  determine. 
Weichardt  (25)  and  Lorenz  (77)  even  claim  a  knowledge  of 
the  kenotoxin  which  produces  fatigue  as  well  as  of  anti- 
kenotixin  which  neutralizes  or  retards  its  effects.  We  can 
at  present  only  await  further  developments  in  this  line. 

(2)  Psycho-Physical  Tests. — These  tests  are  based  on  the 
assumption  that  mental  fatigue  always  produces  loss  of  nerv- 
ous tension  or  tone,  resulting  in  diminished  functioning  of  the 
nervous  end  organs,  as  in  reducing  the  sensitiveness  of  the 
skin.     In  such  case  the  measurement  of  the  sensitiveness  of 
the   skin   with   an   instrument   like   the   esthesiometer   would 
furnish  a  good  measure  of  the  mental  fatigue.     This  method 
has  been  highly  favored  by  some  of  the  German  psychologists, 
but  has  been  severely  condemned  by  others. 

Similar  methods  are  those  of  pain-producing  pressure 
measured  with  the  algesiometer,  and  the  tapping  rate  test  with 
a  telegraphic  key  or  similar  instrument.  Wells  has  perhaps 
done  the  most  thorough  work  in  the  tapping  tests  (135). 
Nevertheless,  considerable  doubt  as  to  the  value  of  this  type 
of  tests  still  remains ;  and  we  pass  to  the  consideration  of  the 
mental  tests. 

(3)  Mental  Tests. — The  method  of  the  mental  tests  is  more 
direct    than    the    other    methods    considered,    although    it    is 
attended  with  no  fewer  difficulties.     In  attempting  to  measure 
fatigue  by  the  comparison  of  mental  tasks  done  by  pupils  at 
different  times  of   day  there   first   appears   the   difficulty   of 
setting  the  test.     It  must  be  homogeneous  and  of  a  difficultness 
and  nature  suitable  for  a  test  of  real  efficiency.    The  difficulty 
is  increased  by  the  fact  that  every  task  involves  the  considera- 
tion of  both  rate  and  quality  of  work.     But  besides  these 
difficulties  there  are  the  serious  factors  of  practice  and  sub- 

25.   Fed.    Sem.    (March,   1910),   Vol.    17,    pp.    29-39. 

77.  Zeit.  f.  Schulgesundheitspflege,  Vol.  24,  1911,  pp.  12-32  and  85-102. 

135    Amer.  Jour.  Psych.,  Vol.   19,  1908,  pp.  345-358  and  435-483. 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.  9 

jective  attitude  of  the  pupils,  such  as  determination,  interest, 
indifference,  discouragement,  ennui,  and  various  stimulations. 
No  surprise  need  be  expressed  that  investigators  arrive  at 
different  and  sometimes  contradictory  conclusions.  The  con- 
tribution of  each  has  in  its  way  added  to  the  resources  for  the 
solution  of  the  important  question  of  mental  fatigue. 

The  large  number  of  investigations  by  German  psychologists 
may  be  briefly  summarized  as  representing  an  increased  rate 
of  work  with  a  corresponding  increase  of  errors  for  the  later 
periods  of  the  day.  In  general  they  have  given  emphasis  to 
the  errors  as  representing  an  extreme  mental  fatigue.  This 
conclusion  is  emphasized  in  the  lower  grades.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  borne  in  mind  that  the  class  periods  in  Germany  are 
an  hour  long  even  in  the  elementary  grades. 

In  1900  Thorndike  (121)  gave  a  series  of  tests  at  half  past 
nine  in  the  forenoon  and  at  half  past  three  in  the  afternoon  to 
intermediate  and  grammar  grade  classes  in  the  Cleveland  and 
the  Scranton  schools.  His  conclusions  were  that  the  children 
are  as  able  to  work  in  the  afternoon  as  in  the  forenoon.  They 
do  not  feel  as  able;  but  they  do  not  lack  one  jot  or  tittle  of 
being  as  able  in  the  afternoon.  He  does  not  deny  overpressure 
in  school  as  a  possibility,  but  claims  that  not  one-tenth  of  the 
nervous  breakdowns  are  due  to  the  amount  of  work.  Most 
of  them,  he  says,  are  due  to  "worry,  misery  and  strain  of  ill- 
directed  effort  and  stupid  lack  of  mental  stimulus  and  healthy 
mental  life,  together  with  misuse  of  sense  organs."  He 
regards  stupid  teaching  as  a  chief  cause  of  nervous  breakdowns 
in  school.  The  doubt  must  still  remain  whether  children 
ought  to  do  as  much  work  in  the  afternoon  even  if  Thorndike 
has  proved  that  by  spurt  effort  they  can  do  as  much. 

The  remaining  tests  of  special  interest  to  us  in  this  study 
concern  themselves  with  the  five-hour  single  session  of  school 
so  common  in  Germany.  Careful  experiments  were  con- 
ducted in  various  schools  for  extended  periods  by  Richter 
(102),  Laser  (70),  Kemsies  (62),  and  Ebbinghaus  (34). 

121.  Psychological  Review,  Vol.  7,  1900,  pp.   446-482  and  547-579. 

102.  Unterricht  und  geistige    Ermuedung,    Halle,    1897. 

70.  Ueber  die  geistige  Ermuedung  der  Schueler,  Berlin,   1905. 

62.   Arbeitshygiene  der  Schle  auf  Grund  von   Ermuedungsmessunger 

34.  Zeit.   f.   Psychologic,   Vol.    13,   pp.    401-417. 


10  WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

While  these  investigators  do  not  wholly  agree  as  to  the  advisa- 
bility of  the  five-hour  session,  none  of  them  discover  any 
direct  influence  from  it  which  can  be  called  especially  bad. 
Upon  the  whole  the  evidence  seems  to  favor  the  single  session 
rather  than  oppose  it. 

This  brief  historical  review  indicates  that  the  problem  of 
fatigue  in  school  is  quite  unsettled.  It  seems  evident  that  the 
question  of  fatigue  must  be  investigated  in  reference  to  special 
conditions  and  phases  rather  than  as  a  whole.* 

We  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  special  study  of  fatigue 
and  efficiency  in  the  school  children  of  South  Carolina. 


*As  historical  reference  see  "Mental  Fatigue,"  by  Max  Offner.     Translated  by 

~\X      \K7Vt  inrtlo      "Raltimnrp      1911. 


G.  M.  Whipple,  Baltimore,  1911. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


THE  PROBLEM. 

The  aim  of  this  study  was  to  obtain  knowledge  of  the  work- 
ing ability  of  children  for  different  periods  of  the  single 
session  of  the  school  day,  and  to  determine  the  influence  of 
mental  fatigue  on  the  working  rate,  together  with  the  effects 
of  recesses  and  recuperative  exercises.  The  facts  considered 
were  obtained  from  single  session  schools  of  five  and  a  quarter 
to  five  and  a  half  hours,  including  thirty  minutes  for  recess 
periods.  The  Winthrop  Training  School,  where  the  most 
thorough  tests  were  made,  had  sessions  from  Tuesday  to 
Saturday,  inclusive,  beginning  at  8 :45  a.  m.  and  ending  at 
2  p.  m.,  with  two  fifteen-minute  recesses.  Short  gymnastic 
and  singing  periods  were  included  in  the  daily  program. 

METHOD  OF  PROCEDURE. 

The  methods  used  in  obtaining  the  facts  conformed  as 
closely  as  possible  to  the  regular  school  work.  Nothing  was 
said  to  the  children  about  "experiment."  They  were  simply 
told  to  do  the  work  as  well  as  they  could.  In  all  cases  they 
worked  earnestly,  generally  believing  that  their  success  would 
affect  their  term  record.  In  the  longer  tests  the  work  done  was 
based  directly  upon  the  class  exercises  in  the  different  subjects 
used. 

In  order  to  secure  uniformity  of  procedure,  it  was  con- 
sidered best  to  give  the  tests  myself ;  so  that,  except  in  a  very 
few  cases  to  be  noted,  the  results  are  those  obtained  from  tests 
conducted  uniformly  by  the  same  person.  In  the  case  of  the 
eighth  and  ninth  grades  in  the  Training  School,  where  most 
of  the  tests  were  made,  I  had  direct  charge  and  could  plan 
the  procedure  with  great  uniformity.  Cautions  were  taken 
against  allowing  practice  or  undue  stimulation  effects  to  enter 
into  the  measurements.  The  method  of  equal  ability  groups 
was  adopted  as  had  been  done  before  by  Winch  (142),  and 
also  by  Thorndyke  (121). 

142.  Jour.  Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  1,  Nos.  1  and  2,  1910. 
121.  Psychological   Review,   Vol.    7,    1900,   pp.    547-576. 


12  WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

Each  group  worked  upon  a  different  kind  of  exercise  from 
the  other  group;  and  in  the  second  trial  the  type  of  work  of 
the  two  groups  was  exchanged.  The  experiments  thus  became 
distinctly  a  measurement  of  group  abilities  at  different  times 
of  day  at  which  the  tests  were  given.  Individual  variations 
appear,  but  are  not  the  primary  subject  of  consideration. 

Even  when  the  children  do  different  work  at  each  of  the  two 
tests,  there  is  considerable  suspicion  that  the  first  test  has  an 
influence  on  the  second,  due  either  to  practice  or  to  the  attitude 
of  the  children.  In  order  to  provide  for  this  possibility  the 
first  test  was  sometimes  at  the  close  of  the  day  and  sometimes 
at  the  beginning. 

FIRST  SERIES  OF  SHORT  TESTS. 

Two  series  of  printed  tests  in  simple  operations  in  arith- 
metic were  used.  The  first  series  consisted  of  easy  problems 
in  addition,  multiplication,  subtraction  and  division,  printed  on 
separate  slips  of  paper. 

A  class  of  twelve  ninth  grade  girls  (average  age  fifteen  and 
one-half),  and  a  class  of  eight  eighth  grade  girls  (average  age 
fourteen  and  one-half),  were  used  for  preliminary  trials  with 
these  tests.  The  first  test,  consisting  of  addition  and  multipli- 
cation, was  given  at  2  p.  m.  at  the  close  of  the  school  day,  and 
the  second,  consisting  also  of  addition  and  multiplication,  was 
given  at  8:50  a.  m.  at  the  beginning  of  the  following  school 
day.  In  order  to  avoid  the  influence  of  practice,  the  pupils 
were  divided  into  two  groups  of  equal  average  ability  and 
each  group  had  a  different  kind  of  work  in  the  two  tests. 
The  group  which  had  addition  in  the  first  test  had  multiplica- 
tion in  the  second,  and  the  group  which  had  multiplication  in 
the  first  test  had  addition  in  the  second.  So  that  each  pupil 
worked  addition  and  multiplication  but  did  not  repeat  the  work 
in  either  subject.  Now,  since  the  abilities  of  the  two  groups 
were  approximately  equal,  the  sum  of  the  records  in  the  two 
tests  should  be  equal,  except  for  variation  due  to  mental 
fatigue  or  other  disturbing  factors.  Following  is  a  tabulation 
of  these  results.  The  columns  headed  "correct"  indicate  the 
amount  of  correct  work  on  a  basis  of  ten  for  each  example. 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 


13 


The  columns  headed  "errors"  indicate  the  number  of  incorrect 
results. 

TABLE  I. 

Ninth    Grade,    Winthrop    Training    School,    Twelve    Girls, 
Average  Age  15.7. 


Friday,  I* 
1:57-2 

Jov.  11 
P.  M. 

Saturday,    N< 
8:47-8:5C 

>v.    12,    1910 
A.   M. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

39   5 

2  2 

50  0 

0  0 

Multiplication     

42.6 

2.5 

47.1 

1.0 

A.  M.  Averages:  48.5  correct,  0.5  errors. 
P.  M.  Averages:  42.8  correct,  2.5  errors. 
Mean  variation  2.7  0.5 


TABLE  II. 


Eighth  Grade,  Winthrop  Training  School,  Eight  Girls,  Aver- 
age Age  14.5. 


Friday,    Nov.    11 
1:57-2  P.  M. 


(Saturday,    Nov.    12,    1910 
8:47-8:50  A.   M. 


Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Addition     .... 

48  2 

1  0 

49  7 

0  2 

46  2 

1  2 

45  0 

1  7 

A.  M.  Averages:  47.4  correct,  1.0  errors. 
P.  M.  Averages:  47.2  correct,  1.1  errors. 
Mean  variation  2.2  0.7 


While  Table  1  indicates  better  work  for  the  morning  hour 
both  in  quantity  and  quality  for  the  ninth  grade,  still  it  is  not 
sufficient  basis  for  general  conclusions,  and  we  shall  find  the 
additional  tests  do  not  in  general  support  this  relation  between 
the  early  and  the  late  work. 

By  Table  2  it  will  be  observed  that  the  eighth  grade  girls  do 
almost  exactly  as  well  at  one  time  as  at  the  other,  both  in 
quantity  and  quality  of  work. 

The  next  thing  done  was  to  invert  the  order  of  the  tests, 
giving  the  morning  test  before  the  afternoon  test.  This 
should  enable  us  to  eliminate  any  transfer  of  practice  from 


14 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 


the  first  test  which  might  affect  the  second  test  in  favor  of  any 
particular  time  of  day.  Division  and  subtraction  were  used 
and  the  tests  given  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  first  tests  of 
the  series.  Only  two  minutes  were  allowed  for  each  test. 

Again  the  ninth  grade  do  better  in  the  early  part  of  the  day, 
but"  only  a  small  degree  better.  The  eighth  grade  do  more  at 
the  late  hour,  but  they  make  more  mistakes.  These  results 
show  no  great  difference  between  morning  and  afternoon 
working  ability  of  pupils,  and  we  shall  need  to  examine  the 
results  of  other  tests  in  order  to  draw  definite  conclusions  con- 
cerning the  fatigue  effects  .of  a  five-hour  session  of  school. 

TABLE  in. 

Ninth    Grade,    Winthrop    Training    School,    Twelve    Girls, 
Average  Age  15.7. 


Thursday, 
8:53-8:5, 

Nov.  17 
>  A.  M. 

Friday, 
1:58-2 

Nov.  18 
P.   M. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

48  7 

0  5 

47  8 

1  2"" 

47  2 

1  4 

44  5 

2  3 

A.  M.  Averages:  48.0  correct,  1.0  errors. 
P.  M.  Averages:  46.1  correct,  1.7  errors. 
Mean  variation  2.3  1.0 


TABLE  IV. 


Eighth  Grade,  Winthrop  Training  School,  Eight  Girls,  Aver- 
age Age  14.5. 


Thursday, 
8:53-8:5, 

Nov.  17 
>  A.   M. 

Friday, 
1:58-2 

Nov.  18 
P.   M. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Subtraction     

49  5 

0  2 

50.0 

0.0 

34  7 

1  0 

43  0 

3.7 

A.  M.  Averages:  42.1  correct,  0.6  errors. 
P.  M.  Averages:  46.5  correct,  1.8  errors. 
Mean  variation  2.6  0.5 


. 

'• 


WINTHROP  COLLEGH  BULLETIN.  15 

TESTS  IN  ELEMENTARY  GRADES. 

These  easy  tests  in  arithmetic  were  next  given  to  other 
grades  of  the  Training  School  in  the  same  manner  as  described 
above.  The  two  groups  were  made  according  to  the  regular 
seating  of  the  pupils  in  the  room.  For  example,  as  double 
desks  were  used  those  sitting  in  the  west  end  of  each  seat  com- 
posed one  group,  while  those  sitting  in  the  east  end  constituted 
the  other  group.  Three  minutes  were  allowed  the  seventh 
and  sixth  grades  for  each  part  of  the  work.  The  tests  were 
given  in  the  seventh  and  sixth  grades  first  at  the  late  hour  and 
second  at  the  early  hour  of  the  following  school  day.  Table  5 
for  the  seventh  grade  shows  over  three  points  out  of  a  possible 
fifty  points,  or  over  six  per  cent,  more  work  in  the  first  test; 
that  is,  in  the  one  at  the  close  of  the  school  day.  It  also  shows 
fewer  errors  in  the  afternoon.  Table  6  for  the  sixth  grade 
shows  the  same  kind  of  results  in  a  less  degree.  As  in  the 
eighth  and  ninth  grade  classes,  so  here,  the  effect  of  novelty 
or  interest  seems  to  be  even  more  favorable  to  the  first  trial 
than  practice  is  to  the  second.  This  same  influence  of  stimula- 
tion through  novelty  may  be  noted  throughout  the  investiga- 
tion, and  will  be  discussed  later.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that 
a  comparison  of  results  of  tests  taken  in  different  order  indi- 
cate that  the  novelty  and  the  practice  approximately  counteract 
each  other,  so  that  in  general  the  records  in  tests  at  different 
times  of  day  fairly  represent  the  working  ability  for  the 
particular  time  and  may  be  directly  compared  for  determining 
the  effects  of  fatigue. 

TABLE  V. 

Seventh    Grade,    Winthrop    Training    School,    Seven    Girls, 
Average  Age  13.2;  Two  Boys,  Average  Age  13. 


Friday,    ] 
1:42-1:45 

VTov.    18 
P.   M. 

Saturday, 
8:45-8:48 

Nov.    19 
A.    M. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Addition     

49  6 

0  2 

47  5 

1  5 

Multiplication 

46  2 

1  2 

42  8 

2  4 

A.  M.  Averages:  45.1  correct,  2.0  errors. 
P.  M.  Averages:  47.9  correct,  0.7  errors. 
Mean  variation  2.1  0.6 


16 


W1NTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 


TABLE  VI. 


vSixth     Grade,     Winthrop    Training    School,    Eleven    Girls, 
Average  Age  12.2;  Two  Boys,  Average  Age  12. 


Friday,    I 
1:42-1:45 

STov.    18 
P.    M. 

Saturday, 

8:45-8:48 

Nov.    19 
A.    M. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Addition     .... 

43  7 

1  5 

43  5 

1   3 

31  8 

1   3 

34  5 

4  0 

A.  M.  Averages:  39.0  correct,  2.7  errors. 
P.  M.  Averages:  37.7  correct,  1.4  errors. 
Mean  variation  4.3  1.1 


TABLE  VII. 


Fifth   Grade,   Winthrop   Training   School,   Ten   Girls,   Four 

Boys. 


Thu.    Nov.   10 
1:45-1:50  P.M. 

Fri.   Nov.  11 
9:55-10  A.    M. 

Thu.    Dec.    1 
9-9:04  A.  M. 

Thu.    Dec.    1 
2-2:04  P.   M. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errorg. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

46.7 
37.0 

1.6 
2.0 

44.0 
40.1 

1.0 
2.6 

Multiplication  .  . 

45.0 
31.2 

2.0 

7.7 

47.0 

28.7 

1.7 
13.7 

::::::: 

i 

A.  M.  Aver.  .  . 
P.  M.  Aver.  .  .  . 

Mean  Var.  .  .  . 

42.0     correct,     1.8     errors. 
41.9     correct,     2.0     errors. 

5.1                       1.0 

38.1     correct,     4.8     errors. 
37.8     correct,     7.7     errors. 

6.0                      3.4 

WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 


17 


TABLE;  vm. 


Fourth  Grade,  Winthrop  Training  School,  Ten  Girls,  Thirteen 

Boys. 


Thu.   Nov.   10 
1:45-1:50  P.M. 

Fri.   Nov.   11 
9:55-10  A.    M. 

Thu.   Dec.    10 
9-9:04  A.  M. 

Thu.    Dec.    10 
2-2:04  P.  M. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

43.4 
24.8 

1.4 
3.8 

41.9 

26.9 

2.4 

2.0 

Multiplication.  . 

41.7 
27.4 

4.2 
7.9 

45.1 
14.4 

2.5 
12.9 

» 

A.  M.  Aver.  .  . 
P.  M.  Aver.  .  . 

Mean  Var.  .  .  . 

34.4     correct,     2.2    errors. 
34.1     correct,     2.6    errors. 

6.8                      1.6 

34.5    correct,     6.0    errors. 
29.8     correct,     7.7    errors. 

5.9                      3.7 

We  shall  next  consider  Tables  7  and  8  for  the  same  kind 
of  tests  in  other  classes.  These  are  double  tables,  in  which 
the  first  parts  show  the  result  where  the  first  test  is  taken  in 
the  afternoon  while  the  last  parts  show  the  results  where  the 
first  test  is  taken  in  the  morning. 

The  indications  of  these  tables  are  that  the  children  of  the 
fifth  and  fourth  grades  of  the  Training  School  are  about  as 
efficient  at  the  close  of  a  five-hour  session  as  at  the  beginning. 

Table  9  shows  the  result  of  a  test  given  by  a  teacher  in  the 
Rock  Hill  Graded  Schools  to  a  group  of  fourth  grade  boys. 
The  school  session  in  this  school  lasts  from  9  a.  m.  to  2:30 
p.  m.,  with  two  fifteen-minute  recesses,  so  that  the  afternoon 
test  is  nearly  half  an  hour  later  than  those  in  the  other  schools. 
It  is  probable  that  the  strain  of  the  last  half  hour  is  rather 
severe  on  the  younger  children,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  it 
is  sufficient  to  cause  the  five  per  cent,  decrease  in  ability  indi- 
cated in  the  table. 


18 


WINTHROP  COLLHGH  BULLETIN. 


TABLE:  ix. 


Fourth   Grade,    Rock   Hill   Graded    School,    Eighteen    Boys, 
Average  Age  10. 


Wednesday,    Nov.    23 
9:25-9:30   A.    M. 


Wednesday,   Nov.   23 
2:25-2:30   P.   M. 


Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Addition     

44  2 

1  6 

43  9 

3  9 

Multiplication 

33  9 

7  5 

31   4 

8  6 

A.  M.  Averages:  39.1  correct,  4.5  errors. 
P.  M.  Averages:  37.6  correct,  6.2  errors. 
Mean  variation  7.2  3.9 


SECOND  SERIES  OF  ARITHMETICAL  TESTS. 

We  shall  next  consider  a  second  series  of  tests  in  the  arith- 
metical operations,  longer  and  more  difficult  than  the  ones 
already  presented. 

(See  Appendix  for  sample  tests.) 

The  tests  of  the  second  series  were  given  in  the  same  manner 
as  those  of  the  first  except  that  the  time  allowed  was  extended 
to  from  five  to  ten  minutes,  according  to  the  ability  of  the 
class. 

Tables  10,  11,  12  and  13  are  results  for  high  school  classes. 
Table  10  indicates  that  the  ninth  grade  pupils  of  the  Training 
School  have  about  the  same  ability  in  the  morning  and  in  the 
afternoon;  Table  11  shows  that  the  eighth  grade  pupils  are 
abler  in  the  afternoon;  while  Table  12  shows  that  the  ninth 
and  tenth  grades  in  the  Fort  Mill  School  have  more  ability  in 
the  morning,  and  Table  13  indicates  equal  abilities  in  the 
morning  and  afternoon  for  the  eighth  grade.  Table  13  shows 
the  results  of  three  tests  taken  at  different  times  of  the  day. 
While  the  first  and  last  tests  indicate  about  equal  ability  for 
the  forenoon  and  the  afternoon,  the  middle  test  indicates  a 
distinct  dropping  off  in  ability  between  12  and  1.  It  will  later 
be  further  indicated  that  the  working  ability  of  classes 
increases  in  the  morning  till  10  or  11  a.  m.,  and  then  drops  off 
slightly  to  rise  again  before  the  close  of  school  at  2  p.  m. 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 


19 


X. 


Ninth  Grade,  Winthrop  Training  School,  Twelve  Girls. 


Saturday, 
1910,  1:57-2 

Dec.    10, 
:02  P.  M. 

Thursday, 
8:50-8:55 

Dec.     22 
A.   M. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

90  7 

3  2 

88.8 

1.3 

81  5 

5  5 

73  2 

4.6 

A.  M.  Averages:  86.0  correct,  3.1  errors. 
P.  M.  Averages:  86.1  correct,  4.4  errors. 
Mean  variation  6.6  1.7 


TABLE  XI. 

Eighth  Grade  Girls,  Winthrop  Training  School. 


Saturday, 
1:57-2:02 

Dec.   10 
P.    M. 

Thursday,    D 
8:50-8:55 

;c.    22,    1910 
A.   M. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

93  5 

1  5 

81  5 

0  5 

87  0 

0  5 

86  0 

0  0 

A.  M.  Averages:  83.8  correct,  0.2  errors. 
P.  M.  Averages:  90.2  correct,  1.0  errors. 
Mean  variation  7.5  0.3 


TABLE  XII. 

Ninth  and  Tenth  Grades,  Fort  Mill  Graded  School 


Monday,  Dec.  12 
10:10-10:15   A.    M. 

Monday,   Dec.   12,   1910 
1:50-1:55    P.    M. 

s 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

79.0 

89.8 

4.0 
5.2 

73.2 
92.2 

5.4 

5.4 

Subtraction     

A.  M..  Averages:  84.4  correct,  4.6  errors. 
P.  M.  Averages:  82.6  correct,  5.6  errors. 
Mean  variation  6.3  3.3 


20 


W1NTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 


TABLE  XIII. 


Eighth  Grade,  Fort  Mill  School,  Twelve  Girls,  Eight  Boys, 
December  12,  1910. 


10:50-10:57  A.  M. 

12:38-12:45  P.  M. 

1:45-1:52  P.  M. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Addition    .... 
Subtraction.  .  . 
Multiplicat'n.  . 
Division  

76.4 
70.6 
57.0 

77.4 

10.2 
8.4 
3.2 
8.2 

70.5 
79.7 
61.2 
64.2 

7.0 
10.3 
3.0 
9.4 

74.6 
93.0 

48.8 
64.8 

5.6 
5.3 
4.8 
3.3 

Total  Av  

70.3 

7.5 

68.9 

7.4 

70.3 

4.7 

Mean  Var.  .  . 

11.7 

2.6 

11.7 

4.3 

11.3 

4.0 

TABLE  XIV. 


Fourth  Grade,  Fort  Mill  School,  Nine  Girls,  Average  Age  11 : 
Three  Boys,  Average  Age  11.6. 


9:55-10:OJ 

A.  M. 

1:42-1:50 

P.    M. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

47  0 

9  6 

52  3 

5  0 

27  0 

26  3 

41  2 

13  8 

A.  M.  Averages:  37.0  correct,  18.0  errors. 
P.  M.  Averages:  46.7  correct,  9.4  errors. 
Mean  variation  8.9  7.9 


TABLE  XV. 


Third  Grade,  Fort  Mill  School,  Four  Girls,  Average  Age  9.2; 
Eight  Boys,  Average  Age  9.8. 


9:55-10:0: 

5  A.  M. 

1:42-1:50 

P.    M. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

28  2 

12  1 

28  7 

4.2 

33  0 

12  2 

31  0 

10.7 

A.  M.  Averages:  30.6  correct,  12.2  errors. 
P.  M.  Averages:  29.9  correct,  7.5  errors. 
Mean  variation,  6.7  5.6 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.  21 

The  foregoing  tables  refer  to  all  the  grades  of  school  children 
from  the  third  grade  (average  age  nine  and  one-half  years) 
to  the  tenth  grade  (average  age  sixteen  years),  and  indicate 
the  comparative  quality  and  quantity  of  work  in  the  arith- 
metical operations  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  close  of  the 
school  day.  For  convenient  comparison,  a  summary  of  these 
tables  for  the  various  tests  may  be  shown  as  in  Table  14,  p.  22. 

A  careful  inspection  of  this  summary  shows  that  the  results 
are  as  good  for  the  late  period  of  2  p.  m.  as  for  the  early  period 
of  9  a.  m.,  and  this  is  as  obvious  in  the  lower  grades  as  in  the 
higher.  In  other  words,  there  is  no  indication  of  a  falling  off 
in  efficiency  due  to  the  fatigue  of  the  school  day.  In  fact, 
these  results  show  somewhat  more  favorably  for  the  afternoon 
work,  as  is  indicated  by  the  per  cent,  gain,  or  loss,  for  the  early 
and  for  the  late  periods  of  the  day.  For  in  the  seven  grades 
considered,  only  three — ninth,  sixth  and  third — show  a  total 
quantity  of  correct  work  greater  in  the  morning,  while  only 
the  ninth  and  fifth  grades  show  fewer  mistakes  at  the  early 
hour.  The  conclusion,  therefore,  is  inevitable  that  if  there  is 
mental  fatigue  due  to  the  work  of  the  school  day  these  tests 
fail  to  show  it  either  by  quantity  or  quality  of  the  work  done. 

These  results  seem  to  correspond  well  to  Thorndike's  (121) 
conclusions  regarding  the  relative  efficiency  of  the  children  at 
the  beginning  and  at  the  close  of  the  day,  based  on  his  tests  in 
the  Cleveland  and  Scranton  schools.  He  found  the  children 
just  as  efficient  at  the  close  of  a  double  daily  session  between 
3  and  4  p.  m.  as  at  the  beginning  between  9  and  10  a.  m. 
This  is  also  in  agreement  with  the  results  of  an  investigation 
by  Ebbinghaus  (34)  on  the  fatigue  of  a  five-hour  daily  session 
of  school  in  the  district  of  Breslau,  Germany.  In  a  series  of 
brief  tests  he  discovered  but  little  indication  of  fatigue  in  the 
children. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  TESTS  OF  CONTINUOUS  EFFORT. 

So  far  the  tests  considered  have  been  short,  usually  not 
exceeding  ten  minutes.  There  is  evidently  a  great  difference 
between  the  energy  required  for  these  and  that  required  for 


121.  Psychological   Review,   Vol.    7,   1900,    pp.    547-576. 
34.  Zeit.    f.    Psychologic,    Vol.    13,    pp.    401-417. 


22 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 


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WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.  23 

continuous  effort  extending  through  an  hour  or  more.  It  is 
evident  that  each  pupil  possesses  an  energy  reserve  to  be  drawn 
upon  in  cases  of  need.  It  is  then  apparent  that  the  source  of 
energy  supply  may  furnish  support  for  ten  minutes  of  efficient 
work,  but  not  for  forty  minutes  of  equally  good  work.  This 
consideration  may  give  rise  to  confusion  in  the  definition  of 
fatigue.  May  not  fatigue  mean  loss  of  efficiency  to  persist  in 
continuous  work  rather  than  loss  of  efficiency  for  short  trials? 
It  may  be  claimed,  for  example,  that  a  pupil  can  be  well  nigh 
exhausted  from  fatiguing  effort,  and  yet  under  stimulus  may 
rally  and  produce  a  high  record  for  a  few  minutes.  It  seems 
probable  then  that  the  continuous  mental  work  covering  an 
hour  may  be  a  better  measure  of  the  conditions  of  fatigue  in 
the  schoolroom  than  the  shorter  tests. 

In  consideration  of  the  above  probability  I  undertook  to 
measure  the  working  efficiency  of  the  pupils  of  the  ninth  and 
eighth  grades  during  nearly  an  hour  at  different  times  of  the 
day.  But  my  aim  was  not  only  to  determine  the  fatigue  of  the 
different  parts  of  the  school  hour,  as  was  done  by  Burgerstein 
(8)  and  Miss  Holmes  (54),  but  to  find  it  for  different  times 
of  the  day  and  under  different  known  conditions. 

By  comparing  the  nature  of  the  efficiency  curves  for  the 
different  hours  of  the  day  it  seemed  possible  to  draw  conclu- 
sions concerning  the  relative  conditions  of  fatigue  for  the 
various  periods. 

TESTS  FOR  CONTINUOUS  EFFORT. 

The  tests  used  were  class  reviews  in  algebra,  history  and 
Latin.  The  tests  consisted  of  four  parts  on  different  phases 
of  the  subjects  and  approximately  of  equal  length  and  difficult- 
ness.  Each  part  was  intended  to  be  long  enough  to  require 
not  less  than  ten  minutes  by  the  best  pupils.  In  very  few  cases 
did  any  pupil  finish  the  work  in  the  ten  minutes  allowed  for  it. 
The  attempt  to  make  each  part  of  equal  difficultness  for  the 
pupils  in  the  algebra  tests  was  not  successful.  The  pupils 
were  not  thorough  on  part  of  the  work  gone  over  in  the  test, 

8.   Educational  Rev.,  Vol.  25,  p.  364. 

54.  Fed.    Sem.,   Vol.    3,   1905,   pp.   213-234. 


24  WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

and  were  especially  weak  in  the  solving  of  the  concrete 
problems. 

The  result  was  that  very  low  grades  were  made  on  the 
problems  in  the  algebra,  and  the  mean  variation  in  the  scores 
was  very  great.  But  since  the  pupils  were  carefully  divided 
into  groups  of  equal  ability  and  since  the  complete  score  for 
each  ten  minutes  was  the  sum  of  the  four  groups  working  on 
all  four  parts  of  the  test,  the  total  results  probably  represented 
fairly  well  the  relative  working  rate  for  each  of  the  four 
ten-minutes. 

(For  sample  tests  see  Appendix.) 

RESULTS  OF  TESTS  IN  THE  NINTH  GRADE. 

The  class  of  twelve  girls  was  considered  in  four  groups  of 
three  each.  The  ability  of  the  groups  were  approximately 
equal.  Part  A  of  the  test  was  given  to  one  group  of  three; 
part  B,  to  another  group;  part  C,  to  another  group,  and  part 
D,  to  the  last  group  of  the  girls.  All  worked  just  ten  minutes, 
and  then  we  used  two  minutes  in  collecting  papers  and  chang- 
ing questions.  Then  all  worked  again  for  ten  minutes,  when 
the  papers  were  again  collected.  In  this  manner  forty-eight 
minutes  were  required  to  complete  the  work,  giving  every 
pupil  ten  minutes'  time  on  each  part  of  the  test. 

The  test  was  regarded  as  regular  work  upon  which  the  term 
grades  in  the  various  subjects  would  in  part  depend.  No  sug- 
gestion of  experiment  was  made  to  the  pupils.  They  used  all 
the  time  and  worked  earnestly. 

In  Tables  17  and  18  the  children  show  a  constantly  increas- 
ing efficiency  throughout  the  four  ten-minute  periods.  These 
grades  are  based  upon  a  possible  100  per  cent,  for  each  ten 
minutes.  The  test  proved  very  difficult  for  the  pupils,  who  in 
some  cases  show  low  grades  and  tremendous  variability  for 
the  different  parts  of  the  work.  All  the  pupils  worked  ear- 
nestly throughout  each  part  of  the  test,  as  they  also  did  in  the 
other  tests.  The  scoring  was  as  uniform  as  possible  on  such 
imperfect  papers,  some  credit  being  allowed  for  every  correct 
statement.  Here  the  increase  in  results  is  so  decided  in  quan- 
tity that  it  cannot  fail  to  indicate  the  continued  increase  in 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.  25 

working  efficiency  throughout  the  forty-eight  minutes.  It 
shows  that  the  warming-up  process  in  ninth  grade  children 
continues  during  the  most  of  the  first  hour  of  the  school  day. 
The  tests  upon  which  Table  19  is  based  was  given  three 
weeks  after  that  for  Table  18.  The  children  had  improved 
somewhat  and  showed  more  regularity  and  a  better  working 
ability.  The  averages  for  the  four  parts  of  the  test  show 
different  variations,  indicating,  first,  an  increase  in  ability, 
then  a  marked  decrease,  and  finally,  an  increase.  This  form  of 
variation  becomes  quite  significant  throughout  the  tests  of  the 
same  type. 

TABLE  XXII. 

Summary  of  Tables  17-21,  Ninth  Grade  (Continuous  Work), 
Winthrop  Training  School. 


(Table  17) 
Time 

Algebra,  January  25,   1911. 
9-02-  9-12            9:14-  9:24            9 

:26-  9:36 

9:38-  9:48 

....                 65  67                     71.07 

79.2% 

81.9% 

(Table  18) 
Time 

Algebra,  September  23,  1910. 
9-00-9-10            9:12-9:22            9 

:25-  9:35 

9:37-  9:47 

..    .                 22.77                     29.27 

35.0% 

38.0% 

(Table  19) 
Time              

Algebra,  October,  1910. 
11-20-11:30         11:32-11:42         11 

:  45-11:55 

11:57-12:07 

39.97                     40.9% 

35.0% 

36.9% 

(Table  20) 
Time 

Algebra,  December  1,  1910. 
1  15-  1-25           1:27-  1:37           1 

:39-  1:49 

1:51-  2:51 

37  77                     47  57 

37.77 

38.7% 

(Table  21) 
Time 

History,  December  22,  1910. 
11-15-11-25         11:27-11:37         11 

:39-ll:49 

11:51-12:01 

6407                     7437 

68.7% 

71.7% 

Tables  22  and  23  show  a  summary  of  results  in  these  con- 
tinuous tests  for  the  ninth  and  eighth  grades.  The  interesting 
variations  indicated  in  these  tables  are  shown  by  the  diagram 
in  Plate  I. 

TABLE  xxm. 
Eighth  Grade  (Continuous  Work). 

Algebra,  Friday,   September  23,   1910. 

Time     9:00-9:10  9:12-9:22  9:25-9:35  9:37-9:47 

Averages    56.6%  61.5%  52%  56% 

History,  Thursday,  December  22,   1910. 

Time     11:15-11:25     "    11:27-11:37         11:39-11:49         11:51-12:01 

Averages    57.6%  78.8%  71.2%  76% 

Mean  variation  for  Tables  22  and  23  is  approx.  9.  per  cent. 


o 

fO 


lf>  O          «0          O 

ro        to       ol        N 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.  27 

RHYTHMIC  FLUCTUATIONS  IN  EFFICIENCY. 

Plate  I  distinctly  indicates  a  wave-like  rise  and  fall  in 
efficiency.  And  this  occurs  in  every  hour  of  the  uninter- 
rupted work  except  with  the  ninth  grade  in  the  first  hour. 
The  rhythmic  recurrence  of  high  and  low  efficiency  is  very 
evident.  In  these  cases  the  complete  period  of  the  wave  of 
efficiency  is  twenty  minutes.  This  certainly  gives  an  interpre- 
tation to  the  appearance  of  fatigue  during  the  working  hours 
of  the  school  day.  Evidently  the  fatigue  of  the  first  hour  in 
the  ninth  grade  is  not  great  enough  to  cause  a  cessation  of  the 
working  rate.  In  every  other  case  fatigue  seems  to  occur 
and  to  be  relieved  by  a  temporary  slowing  up  in  the  rate  of 
work.  Apparently  the  descending  lines  in  the  diagrams  repre- 
sent a  resting  period  in  the  pupils,  while  the  ascending  lines 
show  more  strenuous  effort. 

The  conclusion  that  a  rhythmic  alternation  of  high  and  low 
efficiency  always  occur  in  continuous  work  may  need  further 
verification.  However,  this  conclusion  seems  to  harmonize 
well  with  known  facts  of  life.  The  physiological  processes 
are  largely  rhythmical  as,  for  example,  the  pulsations  of  the 
heart  and  the  movements  in  respiration.  There  are  many 
cases  where  a  periodical  alternation  of  rest  and  increased 
activity  occur  in  the  physical  body. 

Pillsbury  (100)  and  others  have  found  that  the  attention 
can  be  sustained  at  a  maximum  for  only  a  few  seconds.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  efficiency  curve  is  made  up  of  short 
fluctuations  within  a  longer  wave.  Perhaps  the  curve  is  very 
complex,  being  composed  of  several  different  lengths  of  waves. 

EFFICIENCY  AT  DIFFERENT  PERIODS  OF  THE  DAY. 

As  has  been  found  by  many  experimenters  the  working 
capacity  as  indicated  by  mental  tests  does  not  fall  off  regularly 
during  the  day,  but  varies  from  one  period  to  another  with 
irregularity  according  to  the  individual.  In  no  case  is  the 
efficiency  curve  from  morning  till  evening  a  straight  line.  This 
fact  necessitates  comparisons  of  ability  between  every  two 
periods  in  order  to  construct  the  curve  for  the  day. 

100.  Amer.  Jour,  of  Psch.,  Vol.  14,  1903,  pp.  276-288. 


28  WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

It  has  already  been  indicated  by  the  summary  of  the  tests 
(Table  16)  that  children  do  as  well  in  their  tests  at  the  close 
of  the  session  at  2  p.  m.  as  they  do  early  in  the  day.  A  closer 
examination  of  the  tables  indicates  that  the  pupils  do  better 
work  at  10  to  11  a.  m.  than  they  do  either  earlier  or  later 
in  the  day.  The  eighth  grade  in  Table  13  does  decidedly 
better  work  both  at  11  a.  m.  and  at  2  p.  m.  than  at  the  inter- 
vening period  between  12  and  1  p.  m.  A  sixth  grade  class  in 
the  Rock  Hill  Schools  made  an  average  in  the  arithmetical 
tests  of  41.8  per  cent,  at  10  a.  m.  and  only  38.3  per  cent,  at 
2  p.  m.,  with  .7  more  errors  per  pupil  at  the  late  hour.  This 
indicates  about  9  per  cent,  better  work  at  the  10  o'clock  hour. 

The  ninth  grade  class  in  the  Training  School  made  an  aver- 
age grade  of  73  per  cent,  in  a  dictation  test  at  1 :35  p.  m.  and 
an  average  of  76  per  cent,  in  a  similar  test  at  11 :20  a.  m.,  with 
an  average  of  1.8  errors  per  pupil  in  each  test.  Again  the 
result  is  in  favor  of  the  forenoon  work.  These  results  indi- 
cate a  maximum  working  ability  at  from  10  to  11  a.  m.  and 
a  depression  or  falling  off  for  the  period  from  12  to  1  p.  m. 
followed  by  a  rise  in  ability  before  the  dismissal  at  2  p.  m. 
But  in  all  cases  the  average  working  rate  increases  after  the 
opening  of  school  in  the  morning. 

This  gives  emphasis  to  the  mental  inertia  in  school  children 
and  shows  the  importance  of  the  warming-up  process.  It  will 
be  shown  later  in  this  discussion  that  not  only  is  the  mental 
warming-up  a  feature  of  the  first  hour  of  the  school  day,  but 
that  it  takes  place  after  every  extended  recess  or  long  con- 
tinued diversion  from  the  regular  school  work. 

MENTAL  INERTIA. 

The  mind  does  not  change  from  one  state  of  consciousness 
to  another.  New  associations  have  to  be  formed  and  the 
mind  has  to  get  up  momentum  in  its  new  activity.  This 
adjustment  requires  time.  The  tendency  of  the  mind  ^to 
persist  in  the  same  attitude  or  activity  is  known  as  mental 
inertia.  The  persistence  in  consciousness  corresponds  to  the 
persistence  of  sensation  in  the  sense  organs  after  the 
stimulus  has  been  removed;  the  sensation  of  a  flash  of 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.      29 

lightning,  for  example,  persists  several  times  as  long  as  the 
duration  of  the  flash  itself.  The  condition  in  which  the  mind 
tends  to  persist  may  be  one  of  lassitude  or  passive  indifference, 
or  of  strenuous  effort,  but  in  all  cases  it  requires  time  to  adapt 
itself  to  new  attitudes.  Stout  says:  "The  incessant  change 
which  is  essential  to  the  very  existence  of  conscious  life  always 
possesses  some  degree  of  momentum"  (Stout,  Analytic 
Psychology,  I,  p.  147).  For  example,  one  may  feel  the  need 
of  writing  a  letter  to  a  friend,  but  finds  it  much  easier  to  sit 
and  muse  in  idleness  than  to  begin  the  writing.  But  suppose 
the  letter  begun,  the  interest  in  the  activity  may  be  so  great 
that  it  may  be  as  hard  to  stop  writing  as  it  was  to  get  started 
at  first. 

The  importance  of  mental  attitude  for  the  accomplishment 
of  a  task  was  illustrated  by  the  junior  class  in  psychology  in 
Winthrop  College.  Two  sections  of  the  class  had  been  given 
tests  in  habit-substitution  for  the  same  number  of  days.  A 
variation  was  made  by  introducing  into  one  section  five 
minutes  of  hard  work  in  mental  arithmetic  between  the  parts 
of  the  substitution  test;  and  by  showing  the  other  section  a 
funny  picture  at  a  corresponding  time  which  caused  all  the 
students  to  burst  into  laughter.  The  result  was,  that  upon 
resuming  the  substitution  test  after  the  interruption,  the 
section  of  the  class  which  had  worked  at  the  mental  arithmetic 
showed  twice  as  much  improvement  in  the  work  of  the  sub- 
stitution as  the  section  whose  minds  had  been  diverted  by  the 
funny  picture.  It  required  time  for  the  students  to  resume  a 
mental  attitude  for  work  after  the  diversion  caused  by  the 
comical  picture,  while  the  mental  poise  of  those  who  worked 
the  arithmetic  was  less  disturbed. 

It  is  evident  that  some  individuals  warm  up  to  their  maxi- 
mum ability  much  more  quickly  than  others.  The  variations 
depend  upon  age,  sex,  temperament  and  mental  attitude  of  the 
pupils.  Certainly  the  inertia  varies  for  different  grades.  It 
seems  that  according  to  the  results  of  these  tests  the  inertia  of 
the  eighth  grade  class  is  less  than  that  of  the  ninth  grade.  It 
takes  the  eighth  grade  less  time  to  warm  up  to  their  maximum 
in  the  morning,  but  also  the  fatigue  waves  begin  sooner.  In 


30  WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

Table  23  it  will  be  seen  that  they  reach  their  maximum 
efficiency  in  the  second  ten  minutes  of  work,  while  the  ninth 
grade  continue  their  gain  throughout  the  four  ten-minute 
periods. 

The  test  in  history  on  December  22  (Table  23),  indicates 
that  the  eighth  grade  make  a  very  rapid  gain  for  the  first 
twenty  minutes  and  then  suddenly  fall  off,  though  not  in  an 
extreme  degree. 

In  taking  up  their  work  after  recess  as  well  as  in  the  morn- 
ing the  eighth  grade  indicate  a  promptness  in  reaching  their 
maximum,  which  is  only  equalled  by  the  promptness  with 
which  they  show  the  depression  of  fatigue.  Why  should  this 
grade  of  pupils  differ  so  much  from  those  of  the  ninth  grade  ? 
Partly  on  account  of  being  a  year  younger,  partly  on  account 
of  being  a  year  less  experienced  in  school  studies,  but,  perhaps, 
chiefly  on  account  of  their  mental  attitude  toward  school  work. 
They  were  distinguished  for  their  enthusiasm  and  thorough- 
ness. They  had  high  ideals  and  entered  upon  all  their  tasks 
with  much  spirit.  Evidently  they  were  more  susceptible  to 
fatigue  than  the  slower  ninth  grade  and  their  variation  from 
period  to  period  was  greater.  The  comparison  between  the  two 
classes  must,  however,  afford  a  strong  suggestion  of  smaller 
inertia  in  the  younger  children.  As  will  be  pointed  out  later, 
the  ability  of  the  younger  children  to  sustain  prolonged  atten- 
tion is  more  limited. 

MENTAL  STIMULATIONS. 

Mental  stimulations  are  extremely  varied  in  type,  but  all  of 
them  are  related  to  interest  and  secure  their  results  through 
different  degrees  of  attention.  The  stimulations  of  impor- 
tance for  our  consideration  here  are  ( 1 )  purposive  attainment, 
or  expectancy,  (2)  pleasure  in  accomplishment,  (3)  novelty, 
or  interest  in  the  new. 

1.  Purposive  Attainment. — Strong  purpose  is  a  powerful 
stimulus  in  the  performance  of  work,  The  most  disagreeable 
tasks  become  interesting  if  there  is  sufficient  purpose  in  doing 
them,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  to  impart  to  the  child  a.  proper 
purpose  in  life  is  the  most  important  duty  of  the  teacher  whose 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.  31 

business  it  is  to  make  better  men  and  women.  It  may  gen- 
erally be  expected  that  the  child's  attainments  will  vary  in 
exact  accord  with  the  strength  of  his  purpose.  It  is  this  varia- 
tion which  destroys  the  validity  of  a  great  deal  of  pedagogical 
experimentation.  If,  for  example,  a  task  consists  of  nonsense 
to  the  child  he  will  not  work  well  at  it  after  the  novelty  wears 
off.  The  importance  of  the  factor  of  purpose  is  so  self- 
evident  to  educators  that  it  needs  no  specific  demonstration 
here.  In  order  to  keep  this  factor  as  uniform  as  possible  the 
tests  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades  were  generally  confined  to 
the  tasks  required  in  their  regular  school  work.  And  special 
effort  was  made  to  maintain  a  constancy  of  purpose  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils  throughout  these  experiments. 

Expectancy  which  is  closely  allied  to  purpose  in  the  comple- 
tion of  a  task  has  much  influence  in  all  tests.  In  the  tests 
here  considered  it  probably  has  much  to  do  with  the  rhythmic 
rise  of  efficiency  in  the  last  part  of  the  test,  as  well  as  the  rise 
in  efficiency  at  the  close  of  the  day. 

2.  Pleasure  in  Accomplishment. — The  very  fact  of  being 
able  to  do  a  difficult  task  affords  an  incentive  for  doing  it. 
The  pleasure  is  increased  when  the  accomplishment  can  be 
definitely  seen  and  recognized.  This  is  realized  in  children 
working  problems  for  the  right  "answer." 

A  large  class  of  college  students  in  psychology  had  been 
trying  a  habit-substitution  test  with  various  encouragements  to 
improve  at  a  better  rate.  The  work  was  evidently  not  inter- 
esting to  them.  Finally,  I  showed  the  class  the  practice  curve 
which  represented  their  progress,  and  with  no  further  encour- 
agement than  the  explanation  of  the  curve  the  class  doubled 
the  rate  of  improvement  over  their  previous  trials.  The  fact 
that  they  recognized  their  accomplishments  gave  the  students 
an  incentive  to  do  the  work  better. 

Doubtless  this  factor  entered  into  some  of  the  arithmetical 
tests.  For  example,  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades  showed 
interest  and  rapid  improvement  on  difficult  mental  operations 
with  numbers  called  out  by  the  teacher.  The  problems 
increased  in  difficulty  and  yet  the  ninth  grade  made  on  succes- 
sive days  averages  of  85  per  cent.,  86  per  cent.,  and  92  per 


32  WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

cent.,  respectively,  while  the  eighth  grade  made  corresponding 
averages  of  76  per  cent.,  85  per  cent.,  and  88  per  cent,  on  the 
same  tests.  On  less  agreeable  tasks  like  dictation  work  the 
children  showed  much  less  improvement. 

3.  Novelty. — Finally,  novelty  or  interest  in  the  new  is  a 
great  stimulation  to  effort.  However,  due  to  its  nature,  it 
does  not  remain  long  a  constant,  and  its  variability  is  a  trouble- 
some factor  in  experimentation.  The  difficulty  may  be  illus- 
trated in  part  by  a  carefully  performed  experiment  with  the 
eighth  and  ninth  grades  of  the  Training  School  for  the  deter- 
mination of  efficiency  in  dictation  at  different  hours  of  the  day. 
A  selection  on  Socrates  found  in  Brooks'  Eighth  Reader 
(taken  from  Historical  Tales,  by  Charles  Morris),  was  divided 
into  four  parts  approximately  equal.  The  work  was  intro- 
duced by  telling  the  chlidren  that  they  were  to  learn  some- 
thing about  Socrates  and  that  it  was  hoped  that  they  would  be 
interested  in  this  great  man.  They  were  then  asked  to  attend 
carefully  to  the  reading.  Twenty-one  lines  were  read  to  them 
and  the  children  were  given  ten  minutes  to  write  down  as 
much  of  it  as  they  could  remember.  The  average  grades  were 
based  upon  the  number  of  ideas  correctly  reproduced.  The 
other  portions  of  the  selection  were  given  in  the  same  manner 
4on  successive  weeks  at  different  hours  of  the  day.  The  grad- 
ing was  done  in  the  same  way  and  gave  the  following  results 
for  the  four  tests : 

1.  Friday,  September  23,  12:55-1 :05  p.  m. :  Ninth  grade  65 
per  cent.,  eighth  grade  62  per  cent. 

2.  Thursday,  September  29,  9-9:10  a.  m. :  Ninth  grade  44 
per  cent.,  eighth  grade  49  per  cent. 

3.  Thursday,  October  6,   10:40-10:50  a.  m. :     Ninth  grade 
44.4  per  cent.,  eighth  grade  48  per  cent. 

4.  Thursday,  October  20,  1 :20-1 :30  p.  m. :  Ninth  grade  45 
per  cent.,  eighth  grade  48  per  cent. 

How  can  we  account  for  the  remarkable  drop  between  the 
first  and  second  test  and  the  constancy  of  the  last  three  tests? 
Certainly  not  by  the  time  of  day,  because  the  last  test  was  at 
about  the  same  time  as  that  of  the  first  but  with  an  average 
grade  very  much  lower. 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.  33 

The  fact  is  that  the  children  hated  this  particular  work  after 
the  first  trial  of  it.  It  was  drudgery  to  them  and  they 
appeared  bored  whenever  they  had  to  resume  the  task.  They 
hated  the  name  of  Socrates  so  that  when  the  thrilling  account 
of  his  death  was  finally  read  to  them,  they  sighed  and  in  sup- 
pressed whisper  said,  "Thank  God,  he's  dead!"  Under  such 
conditions  it  is  easy  enough  to  account  for  the  sudden  drop  in 
the  average  grade.  It  was  due  merely  to  a  drop  in  interest. 
This  attitude  indicates  a  sharp  contrast  with  that  of  the  same 
children  toward  the  mental  arithmetic  referred  to  above;  and 
it  is  proper  to  note  that  none  of  the  other  tests  were  accom- 
panied by  a  similar  attitude  of  repugnance.  It  has  already 
been  noted  that  in  order  to  eliminate  the  factor  of  novelty  as 
well  as  the  disturbing  factor  of  practice  the  order  of  the  tests 
was  varied  so  as  to  have  the  first  test  sometimes  in  the  after- 
noon and  sometimes  in  the  forenoon.  This  seems  to  have  been 
worth  while,  for  the  novelty  effect  was  in  some  cases  greater 
than  the  practice  influence.  There  is  no  doubt  that  many 
fatigue  experiments  are  worthless,  due  to  the  interference  of 
stimulation  through  novelty.  This  criticism  applies  to  nearly 
all  the  earlier  investigations  on  fatigue,  and  is  perhaps  a  more 
difficult  factor  to  estimate  than  the  influence  of  practice. 

EFFECTS  OF  INTERRUPTIONS. 

What  are  the  influences  of  recesses,  lunch  periods,  singing 
and  gymnastic  exercises  on  the  daily  school  work?  It  is  gen- 
erally agreed  that  these  -interruptions  relieve  the  nervous 
strain,  and  give  rest  to  the  children.  But  to  what  extent? 
What  is  the  relative  efficiency  of  pupils  before  and  after  such 
pauses?  The  following  tables  indicate  the  results  of  intro- 
ducing the  various  interruptions  between  the  parts  of  the 
work. 

Table  24  shows  the  result  of  a  test  in  Latin  similar  to  the 
previous  tests  except  that  an  interval  of  twenty-one  minutes 
occurred  between  the  first  and  second  parts  of  the  test.  Ten 
minutes  of  this  twenty-one  minutes  were  used  for  gymnastics 
and  the  balance  for  recess.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  drop 
in  efficiency  was  quite  marked  after  this  recess  and  continued 


34  WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

for  two  ten-minute  periods.  It  is  only  during  the  last  ten 
minutes  that  the  pupils  rally  and  show  an  improvement  in 
work,  even  then  they  fall  distinctly  below  their  accomplish- 
ment for  the  period  before  the  intermission. 

In  Table  25  the  test  was  again  interrupted  by  intermissions. 
After  the  first  part  of  the  test  there  was  a  ten-minute  recess 
of  entire  freedom,  during  which  the  pupils  walked  around  and 
talked,  but  did  not  engage  in  any  organized  game.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  children  made  a  better  record  after  this  ten- 
minute  recess  than  before,  while  in  the  test  of  Table  24  they 
made  a  poorer  record  after  the  twenty  minutes  of  gymnastics 
and  recess  combined.  After  the  third  part  of  the  test  there 
was  an  intermission  of  twenty-eight  minutes,  during  which  the 
pupils  engaged  in  folk  dancing  under  the  supervision  of  the 
physical  director.  This  exercise  was  provided  for  once  a 
week  (Tuesday)  and  was  regarded  by  the  children  as  a  great 
privilege.  They  evidently  enjoyed  it  better  than  any  exercise 
either  in  school  or  out  of  school.  Consequently  they  entered 
into  the  dancing  with  real  interest  and  returned  from  it  with 
a  glow  of  pleasure  and  apparent  vigor.  In  the  fourth  part  of 
the  test  after  the  dancing  the  children  resumed  their  work 
promptly  and  with  earnestness,  but  instead  of  showing  a 
gain  in  efficiency  as  heretofore  in  the  final  effort  they  fell  off 
and  showed  a  lower  average  than  on  any  other  part  of  the  test. 
The  energy  of  the  children  had  been  used  up,  or  their  minds 
diverted  so  that  they  could  not  resume  their  work  with  their 
usual  high  efficiency  for  the  final  ten  minutes  of  the  test. 

In  the  tests  so  far  considered  the  time  allowed  was  ten 
minutes  to  each  part.  In  all  cases  the  tasks  were  too  long  for 
many  of  the  pupils  to  complete  in  the  given  time.  We  may 
now  consider  the  result  of  a  test  given  at  the  end  of  the  term 
in  which  double  the  time  (twenty  minutes)  was  allowed  for 
each  of  the  four  parts.  The  children  employed  all  of  the  time 
and  worked  earnestly. 

The  work  for  the  second  twenty  minutes  (Table  26)  shows 
an  improvement  over  that  of  the  first  part.  A  free  recess  of 
ten  minutes  was  given  at  the  end  of  the  second  twenty-minute 
period.  After  this  the  children  fell  off  about  five  per  cent,  in 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 


35 


their  work  during  the  third  twenty  minutes.  Then  ten  minutes 
were  used  for  singing  under  the  direction  of  the  music  teacher. 
Following  the  singing,  which  consisted  of  familiar  songs,  the 
records  show  an  improvement  indicating  an  efficiency  almost 
equal  to  that  for  the  first  twenty  minutes.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  variations  showing  increase,  decrease  and  a  second 
increase  in  working  efficiency  are  of  the  same  order  as  for  the 
tests  of  half  the  length.  (See  Plates  I  and  II.) 

xxvu. 


Summary  of  Tables  24-26,  Ninth  Grade,  Winthrop  Training 

School. 


(Table  24)  Latin,  December  21,  1910. 

Time     10:10-10:20*       10:41-10:51         10:53-11:03         11:05-11:15 

Averages    55.4%  50.4%  49.6%  52.1% 

*20  minutes  recess  and  gymnastics. 

(Table  25)  Algebra,  January  17,  1911. 

Time     10:15-10:25*       10:35-10:45         10:47-10:57f       11:25-11:35 

Averages    39.5%  41.8%  39.3%  39.1% 

*10  minutes   recess.     f25  minutes  folk-dancing. 

(Table  26)  History,  January  24,  1911. 

Time     11:03-11:23         11:25-11:45*       ll:58-12:18f       12:30-12:50 

Averages    77.9%  80.8%  75.4%  77.3% 

*10  minutes  recess.     flO  minutes  singing. 


TABLE:  xxvm. 
Summary  of  Eighth  Grade  (Interrupted  Work). 


Latin,   Wednesday,  December   21,    1910. 

Time     10:10-10:20*  10:41-10:51         10:53-11:03 

Averages    75.4%  77.8%  71.4% 

*20  minutes  gymnastic  and  recess. 


11:05-11:15 

77.8% 


Algebra,  Tuesday,  January  17,  1911. 

Time    10:15-10:25*       10:35-10:45         10:47-10:57f 

Averages    60.7%  73.8%  .       74.7% 

*10   minutes   recess.     f25  minutes   folk-dancing. 


11:25-11:35 

73.6% 


History,  Tuesday.  January  24,  1911. 

Time     11:05-11:45*         12:00-12:20t         12:30-12:50 

Averages     66.9%  70.3% 

*10  minutes  recess.     flO  minutes  singing. 


tf 
o 


O 
0? 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 


37 


XXIX. 


Seventh  Grade,  Winthrop  Training  School,  Saturday,  January 

14,  1911. 


11:55-12  A.  M. 
Before    Gymnastics 

12:10-12:15    P.    M. 
After    Gymnastics. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

71.1 
86.0 

1.0 
6.4 

82.6 
89.6 

0.3 
1.6 

Before  Gymnastic  Averages:  78.5  correct,  3.7  errors. 
After  Gymnastic  Averages:  86.1  correct,  2.3  errors. 
Mean  variation  6.5  •  1.9 


TABLE   XXX. 

Sixth  Grade,  Winthrop  Training  School,  January  14,   1911 


11:55-12  A.  M. 
Before    Gymnastics 

12:10-12:15   P.    M. 
After    Gymnastics. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Addition     

66.0 

77.2 

2.6 
3.2 

84.0 
82.3 

3.4 
1.3 

Subtraction     

Before  Gymnastics  Averages:  69.6  correct,  2.9  errors. 
After  Gymnastics  Averages:  77.1  correct,  2.3  errors. 
Mean  variation  7.7  3.2 


EFFECTS  OF  GYMNASTICS. 

According  to  the  records  in  Table  24,  the  ninth  grade  lose 
rather  than  gain  efficiency  by  twenty  minutes  of  gymnastics 
and  recess.  The  eighth  grade  which  in  uninterrutped  cases 
make  a  very  large  gain  in  the  second  ten  minutes  show  in  Table 
28  only  a  very  slight  gain  after  the  gymnastics  and  recess  of 
twenty  minutes,  while  the  seventh  and  sixth  grades  each  show 
an  improvement  of  five  per  cent,  or  more  in  addition  and  sub- 
traction after  ten  minutes  of  gymnastics  (Tables  29  and  30). 
The  longer  period  of  twenty-five  minutes  in  the  pleasant  exer- 
cise of  dancing  proves  disadvantageous  to  the  work  following 
it  in  both  the  ninth  and  eighth  grades.  As  further  evidence 


38  WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

upon  the  effect  of  the  folk-dancing  the  ninth  grade  were  tested 
upon  work  in  simplifying  complex  fractions  in  algebra  upon 
a  day  when  there  was  dancing  and  upon  another  day  when 
there  was  no  dancing.  The  results  were  as  follows: 

After  dancing  Tuesday,  December  6,  at  11:22-11:27  a.  m., 
average  50.9  per  cent. 

No  dancing  Saturday,  December  17,  at  11:45-11:50  a.  m.r 
average  60.6  per  cent. 

Thus  we  see  that  on  Saturday  when  there  was  no  dancing 
the  children  did  much  better  than  at  approximately  the  same 
time  upon  Tuesday  just  after  twenty-five  minutes  of  dancing. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  greater  distractions  due  to  inertia 
prevent  the  pupils  from  regaining  their  working  poise  at  once. 
The  conclusions  are  obvious.  ( 1 )  The  short  gymnastic  period 
improves  the  work  following  it,  while  the  longer  period  in 
gymnastics  lowers  the  work,  all  of  which  tends  to  favor  the 
short  gymnastic  period  not  exceeding  ten  minutes  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  longer  one.  (2)  The  benefits  of  the  gymnastics 
are  more  apparent  in  the  sixth,  seventh  and  eighth  grades  than 
in  the  ninth  grade.  It  is  natural  to  infer  that  the  lower  grades 
in  general  have  more  need  of  gymnastics  and  physical 
activities. 

EFFECTS  OF  SINGING. 

In  one  long  test  in  history  ten  minutes  of  singing  of  well 
known  songs  were  introduced  into  the  test  as  a  rest  factor. 
(Tables  26  and  28.)  It  seems  that  the  singing  had  a  bene- 
ficial effect  in  improving  the  work  following  it.  At  least  the 
singing  had  no  bad  influence,  as  the  ninth  grade  showed 
improvement  after  the  work,  and  the  eighth  grade  made  a 
better  combined  average  on  the  work  immediately  preceding 
and  following  than  on  the  work  in  an  uninterrupted  period  of 
the  same  time.  The  effect  of  singing  in  this  case  is  not  differ- 
ent from  that  of  a  free  recess.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
effort  to  sing  at  sight  from  printed  notes  would  have  the  same, 
beneficial  influence. 


W1NTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.  39 

EFFECTS  OF  RECESSES. 

Plate  II  indicates  the  efficiency  of  pupils  influenced  by 
different  kinds  of  intermissions  introduced  into  their  extended 
periods  of  work.  In  order  to  get  the  full  meaning  of  the 
intermissions  it  is  necessary  to  compare  the  curves  with  those 
of  Plate  I,  in  which  no  interruptions  were  introduced.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  ten-minute  intermissions  do  not  affect  the 
results  unfavorably.  However,  a  close  comparison  with  Plate 
I  shows  that  the  comparative  results  for  the  period  following 
are  about  the  same  as  when  no  intermission  is  allowed.  The 
definite  benefits  probably  appear  later,  and  it  may  be  noted 
here  that  in  the  algebra  test  the  third  ten  minutes  of  work 
(i.  e.  the  second  ten  minutes  after  the  recess)  shows  less 
falling  off  than  usual  for  this  period.  Indeed  the  eighth  grade 
after  recess  show  a  continued  improvement  in  the  algebra  as 
they  do  also  in  the  long  history  test.  It  is  evident  that  this 
grade  have  a  greater  need  of  recess  than  the  ninth  grade. 
This  is  further  indicated  by  the  fact  that  in  the  history  test 
the  eighth  grade  make  a  better  average  in  two  twenty-minute 
periods  each  preceded  by  ten  minutes  of  relaxation  than  in 
forty  minutes  of  continuous  work  (70.3  per  cent,  to  66.9  per 
cent.),  while  on  the  other  hand,  the  ninth  grade  do  decidedly 
better  in  the  forty  minutes  of  uninterrupted  work. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  twenty*  minutes 
given  to  gymnastics  and  recess  combined  proved  of  doubtful 
value  to  the  work  following  in  both  the  eighth  and  ninth 
grades,  while  the  twenty-five  minutes  of  dancing  proved 
decidedly  damaging.  At  the  same  time  it  was  noted  that  ten 
minutes  of  formal  gymnastics  showed  favorably  for  the  sixth 
and  seventh  grades.  In  tests  of  rapid  work  in  mental  arith- 
metic taken  at  12 :05  p.  m.  before  recess  and  at  12 :30  after  a 
twenty-minute  recess,  the  ninth  grade  made  an  average  of  94.2 
per  cent,  before  recess  and  of  96  per  cent,  after  recess,  while 
the  eighth  grade  made  an  average  of  94.3  per  cent,  before 
recess  and  100  per  cent,  after  recess.  In  this  case  the  twenty- 
minute  free  recess  seems  to  be  valuable  for  both  grades,  but 
its  value  is  greater  in  the  eighth  grade.  This  all  seems  to 


40  WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

point  to  the  conclusion  that  the  short  intermissions  of  all  types 
are  better  than  the  long  ones.  We  may  now  consider  the 
effect  of  recess  upon  the  lower  grades.  Table  31  shows  for  a 
test  in  addition  and  subtraction  in  the  fifth  grade  of  the  Train- 
ing School  an  improvement  of  about  5  per  cent,  after  a  fifteen- 
minute  recess  at  12 :30  p.  m. ;  while  Table  32  shows  approxi- 
mately the  same  for  the  fourth  grade.  The  number  of 
errors  in  both  cases  were  fewer  after  recess. 

We  may  next  consider  in  Tables  33  and  34  the  effects  of  a 
thirty-minute  recess  upon  children  of  the  sixth  and  fifth  grades 
in  the  Fort  Mill  Schools.  The  children  exercised  moderately 
during  the  thirty  minutes  at  playing  ball  and  in  various  run- 
ning games.  They  came  into  school  after  recess  glowing  with 
pleasure  from  their  play.  They  entered  upon  their  work 
with  eagerness  and  worked  hard  throughout  the  time  of  the 
test.  The  results  indicate  in  both  classes  about  5  per  cent, 
increase  in  quantity  of  correct  work,  but  the  errors  increased 
tremendously,  showing  in  both  classes  more  than  twice  as 
many  errors  after  recess  as  before.  The  work  after  recess  as 
compared  to  that  before  recess  was  unreasonably  bad  in 
quality.  The  children  apparently  failed  to  get  the  prompt 
mental  adjustment  required  for  accurate  work.  The  case  of 
more  errors  after  recess  certainly  indicates  that  it  is  not  safe 
to  rely  on  number  of  errors  alone,  as  Friedrich  (36)  and 
others  have,  for  determining  the  degree  of  fatigue.  Neither 
does  the  rate  of  work  alone  seem  adequate  for  the  determina- 
tion. The  final  judgment  must  be  based  upon  an  estimation 
including  both  quantity  and  quality  of  work.  This  gives 
doubtful  interpretation  to  the  effects  of  the  long  recess.  To 
count  the  wrong  work  simply  as  zero  would  indicate  better 
ability  after  recess  than  before.  But  wrong  results  are  worse 
than  no  results  and  should  be  counted  as  a  negative  value. 
How  much  negative  value  should  be  given  to  wrong  results? 
Nothing  but  an  arbitrary  answer  can  be  given,  and  every 
person  can  formulate  his  own  answer.  My  judgment  is  that 
in  this  case  the  work  after  recess  deserves  a  lower  rating  than 
before  recess  notwithstanding  its  increase  in  quantity. 

36.  Zeit.  f.  Psychologic  und  Physiologic  der  Sinnesorgane,  Vol.   13. 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 


41 


This  indicates  again  that  the  shorter  recess  of  fifteen 
minutes  is  better  than  the  thirty-minute  recess,  and  confirms 
the  general  conclusion  against  the  use  of  the  long  recess  as 
well  as  against  all  extended  intermissions.  The  evidence, 
however,  is  not  complete,  for  we  are  unable  at  this  time  to 
determine  the  persisting  physiological  and  mental  effects  of 
the  more  perfect  relaxation  due  to  long  intermissions.  This 
topic  deserves  further  consideration  than  can  be  given  to  it 
at  this  time. 

TABLE  xxxi. 

Fifth  Grade,  Winthrop  Training  School,  January   12,   1911. 


12:25-12:30    P.    M. 
Before  Recess. 

12:48-12:53   P.    M. 
After  Recess. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Addition     

66.7 
64.0 

3.0 
8.0 

64.0 
75.3 

2.2 
7.2 

Subtraction       .  .        .  .  .  ..  

Before  Recess  Averages:  65.3  correct,  5.5  errors. 
After  Recess  Averages:  69.65  correct,  4.7  errors. 
Mean  variation  7.7  3.2 


TABLE  XXXII. 

Fourth  Grade,  Winthrop  Training  School,  January  12,  1911. 


12:25-12:30    P.    M. 
Before  Recess. 

12:48-12:53   P.    M. 
After  Recess. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

62.1 
56.0 

3.0 
18.0 

57.6 
67.2 

3.0 
13.0 

Before  Recess  Averages:  59.0  correct,  10.5  errors. 
After  Recess  Averages:  62.4  correct,  8.1  errors. 
Mean  variation  9.5  4.2 


42 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 


TABLE  xxxm. 


Sixth  Grade,  Fort  Mill  School,  Ten  Girls,  Average  Age  12.8; 
Four  Boys,  Average  Ag>e  14,  December  12,  1910. 


11:18-11:25   A.    M. 
Before  Recess. 

12:12-12:19   P.    M. 
After  Recess. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Addition     

52.5 
65.0 

2.4 

5.8 

64.7 
59.4 

8.8 
22.8 

Subtraction     

Before  Recess  Averages:  58.7  correct,  4.1  errors. 
After  Recess  Averages:  62.1  correct,  15.8  errors. 
Mean  variation  10.3  4.1 


TABLE  xxxiv. 


Fifth  Grade,  Fort  Mill  School,  Eight  Girls,  Average  Age  11; 
Nine  Boys,  Average  Age  10.6 ;  December  12,  1910. 


11:18-11:2 
Before 

5   A.    M. 

Recess. 

12:12-12:1 
After  I 

9   P.    M. 
lecess. 

Average. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Correct. 

Errors. 

Addition     

50  4 

2  0 

59  8 

6  0 

Subtraction     

71   7 

7  7 

71  2 

15  3 

Before  Recess  Averages:  61.0  correct,  4.8  errors. 
After  Recess  Averages:  65.5  correct,  10.6  errors. 
Mean  variation.  10.1  5.0 


EFFECT  OF  LUNCHES. 

The  time  for  eating  their  lunches  and  regular  meals  is  a 
serious  question  for  the  children  in  the  single  session  schools 
of  the  South.  Generally  they  take  but  little  lunch  to  school, 
and  do  not  get  their  dinner  till  3  o'clock.  In  some  cases  the 
family  have  their  dinner  at  the  same  time,  and  in  others  the 
family  eat  an  hour  or  two  earlier  and  the  children  get  a 
separate  dinner  when  they  come  home — sometimes  it  is  a  cold 
one,  sometimes  it  is  "warmed  over,"  and  sometimes  it  is 
cooked  fresh.  In  defense  of  this  practice  it  should  be  said 
that  the  question  resolves  itself  into  a  problem  of  local  condi- 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.  43 

tions,  (1)  on  account  of  the  servants  who  do  the  cooking  in 
the  Southern  homes  and  frequently  live  some  distance  from 
the  family  for  whom  they  work.  These  servants  want  to  go 
home  about  the  middle  of  the  afternoon.  This  makes  the  6 
o'clock  dinner  impracticable  at  present  for  people  who  depend 
upon  servants,  and  this  class  constitutes  a  large  proportion  of 
the  white  citizens.  (2)  The  hot  weather  of  spring  and  fall 
makes  it  undesirable  for  the  children  to  go  home  for  dinner  at 
the  middle  of  the  day  and  return  for  a  school  session  in  the 
afternoon. 

The  question  naturally  comes  up  in  regard  to  the  children 
bringing  their  lunches  to  school  and  eating  them  during  inter- 
missions. This  is  just  what  they  might  be  expected  to  do, 
but,  strange  to  say,  there  seems  to  be  small  practice  of  it. 
Through  observation  and  inquiry  I  found  that  very  few 
children  brought  anything  to  eat  at  recess  except  an  apple  or 
some  other  fruit. 

In  discussing  the  effects  of  the  custom  of  the  school  children 
with  other  educators  I  found  many  of  them  critical  in  regard 
to  it,  but  none  had  any  definite  conclusions  to  offer  nor  any 
data  from  which  to  derive  conclusions. 

I  began  by  offering  a  longer  recess  of  twenty  to  twenty-five 
minutes  between  12  and  1  o'clock  and  at  the  same  time  sug- 
gested to  the  children  that  this  would  give  them  a  better  oppor- 
tunity to  eat  their  lunches.  The  children  appreciated  the  longer 
recess,  but  the  lunches  did  not  come.  I  inquired  of  the 
parents  whether  their  children  did  not  get  very  hungry  before 
they  got  their  dinner,  and  told  them  that  I  had  provided  a 
longer  recess  in  which  to  eat  their  lunches.  "Yes,"  said  the 
parents,  "our  children  come  home  nearly  starved,  and  weVe 
kept  after  them  to  take  lunch  to  school,  but  they  won't  do  it." 
Occasionally  the  children  prearranged  for  a  "feast"  at  the 
recess  period ;  then  each  would  bring  some  part  to  school  and 
they  would  spread  it  out  in  picnic  fashion.  These  feasts,  how- 
ever, detracted  from  the  quality  of  the  school  work  following 
them.  This  was  indicated  in  the  remark  of  one  of  the  student 
teachers,  who  said:  "I  do  not  mind  teaching  at  any  time  of 
day  except  the  period  just  after  recess  on  picnic  days.  I  wish 


44  WINTHROP  COLLHGH  BULLETIN. 

the  children  would  not  have  any  more  'feasts/     They  are  so 
hard  to  get  settled  to  their  work  afterwards." 

The  custom  in  regard  to  the  time  of  eating  is  so  well  estab- 
lished that  people  are  slow  to  consider  any  change.  It  may 
be  remarked,  however,  that  an  established  custom  is  not  always 
the  best  custom,  even  though  it  may  be  accepted  as  satisfactory 
to  those  habituated  to  it;  and  I  believe  that  there  should  be  a 
better  arrangement  provided  by  which  school  children  could 
have  their  dinners  at  an  earlier  hour.  My  opinion  is  that  such 
an  arrangement  can  most  practically  be  provided  in  connection 
with  domestic  science  as  a  school  subject  belonging  to  the 
regular  curriculum.  But  we  have  no  time  or  space  to  devote 
to  the  discussion  of  plans  in  detail.  All  we  care  to  claim  is 
that  the  extra  attention  to  eating  would  be,  not  better  mental 
work,  but  better  physical  nutrition  for  the  growth  of  the 
children. 

QUESTION  OF  OVERPRESSURE. 

Do  these  tests  indicate  that  there  is  overpressure  of  work 
on  the  pupils?  Evidently  not.  And  while  one  may  conclude 
that  there  is  some  falling  off  during  a  part  of  the  day,  still  it 
does  not  seem  sufficient  for  alarm.  The  periodic  depression 
of  ability  is  probably  just  a  phase  of  the  process  of 
recuperation. 

In  further  support  of  the  fact  that  no  serious  fatigue  was 
realized  we  found  by  observation  of  the  quality  of  the  regular 
recitations  that  the  pupils  were  about  equally  efficient  at  all 
times  of  the  day.  The  different  subjects — algebra,  history, 
etc. — were  shifted  to  various  places  in  the  daily  program,  and 
each  pupil-teacher  was  asked,  after  a  trial  at  different  hours, 
which  period  she  preferred  for  teaching  her  subject.  No  choice 
was  expressed,  the  teachers  all  declaring  that  the  children  did 
just  as  well  at  one  time  as  at  another,  except  at  the  period  just 
after  the  second  recess  on  days  when  the  children  had  a  picnic 
feast  at  this  recess.  The  teachers  expressed  their  disap- 
proval of  these  luncheons,  claiming  that  the  children  did  not 
do  good  work  in  the  recitations  following  them. 

Likewise  the  advanced  grades  of  the  Training  School 
showed  no  special  fatigue  for  any  particular  day  of  the  week, 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.  45 

from  Tuesday  to  Saturday,  inclusive.  This  was  evidenced  in 
a  concrete  way  by  the  amount  of  supplementary  reading  done 
on  different  days  of  the  week.  The  reading  was  entirely 
optional,  but  the  pupils  had  access  to  a  good  library  and  as 
an  encouragement  in  the  use  of  the  available  books,  they  were 
asked  to  keep  a  record  of  their  daily  reading  and  report  upon 
it.  Their  reports  showed  almost  an  equal  amount  of  reading 
for  each  day  of  the  week,  slightly  more  being  done  on  Satur- 
day. This  would  certainly  indicate  no  excessive  fatigue  at 
the  end  of  the  school  week. 

It  may  be  claimed  that  the  children  of  the  eighth  and  ninth 
grades  of  the  Training  School  did  not  work  under  the  strain 
usually  experienced  by  pupils  in  the  first  year  of  the  high 
school,  and  I  grant  that  this  is  probably  true.  The  children  of 
the  Training  School  had  study  periods  alternating  with  their 
recitation  periods  throughout  the  day,  and  were  allowed  thirty 
minutes  of  recess  in  the  five  and  one-fourth  hour  session,  but 
upon  the  other  hand,  they  worked  earnestly  and  accomplished 
their  tasks  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 

The  fact  that  there  is  no  indication  of  nervous  strain  or 
overpressure  in  the  children  included  in  these  experiments 
does  not  exclude  the  probability  that  children  are  frequently 
injured  by  overwork  and  too  long  hours  in  school.  The  need 
of  shorter  hours,  more  recesses,  and  a  greater  variety  of  work 
applies  especially  to  the  younger  children  in  school.  It  must 
be  admitted,  however,  that  we  still  lack  data  by  which  to  estab- 
lish this  fact.  There  is  now  a  need  of  more  data  on  the 
fatigue  of  children  in  the  primary  grades. 


SUMMARY  OF  CONCLUSIONS  AND  PED- 
AGOGICAL APPLICATIONS. 


1.  Overpressure. — The     foregoing    data    do    not    indicate 
extreme  fatigue  or  overpressure  for  the  daily  work  in  school 
children.     There  may  be  apparent  exceptions,  but  usually  they 
are  the  result  of  worry  instead  of  work.     In  general  there  is 
more   weariness   than   fatigue   in   the   children;   and   mental 
activities  are  more  necessary  than  complete  idleness.     Here 
then  is  the  teachers  problem :  How  provide  the  proper  mental 
stimulations  for  keeping  up  the  interest  in  school  ? 

2.  Mental  Stimulations. — Purpose,  pleasure  of  accomplish- 
ment, and  interest  in  novelty  and  variety  are  strong  stimula- 
tions to  effort,  and  are  very  valuable  for  increasing  the  rate 
of  working.     If  a  boy  sees  no  purpose  in  learning  he  will  not 
learn.     The  teacher  needs  to  establish  and  deepen  the  purpose 
of  his  pupils  in  securing  knowledge;  also  he  must  provide 
work  that  they  can  do,  so  that  they  may  get  the  encourage- 
ment of  progress  and  accomplishment ;  and  he  must  provide  a 
variety  of  work  that  will  break  up  the  humdrum  drudgery  of 
school   work   and   take   away   the   tired   feeling.     Occasional 
change  creates  new  life  in  the  school,  and  greatly  increases 
the  work. 

3.  Mental  Inertia. — Pupils  are  not  at  their  highest  efficiency 
at  the  beginning  of   the   session.     The   warming-up   process 
seems  to  be  especially  important  in  older  children.     It  requires 
time  to  get  into  the  swing  of  the  work.     Low  working  rate 
frequently  results   from  lack  of  proper  mind  set  or  proper 
swing  in  the  performance  of  the  task.     When  the  mind  gets 
completely  off  a  given  line  of  thought  it  takes  time  to  get 
back  to  it.     This   fact  requires   a   caution   against  extended 
interruptions  and  too  frequent  changes,  especially  in  the  upper 
grades. 

4.  Recesses. — Recesses    are    especially    valuable     for    the 
younger    children.     The    short    recesses    of    ten    minutes    to 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.  47 

fifteen  minutes  show  an  improvement  in  working  ability  in 
all  grades,  and  are  better  than  the  long  intermissions  for  the 
work  immediately  following.  The  longer  recess  evidently 
distracts  the  attention  from  the  lessons,  and  the  mental  inertia 
of  the  older  pupils  requires  considerable  time  for  them  to  get 
readjusted  to  their  work.  The  longer  recess  has  a  value  in 
affording  complete  relaxation  and  relief  from  nervous  strain, 
but  is  opposed  to  immediate  mental  efficiency. 

5.  Gymnastics. — Ten-minute  periods  of  gymnastic  exercises 
are  beneficial  to  the  work  following  them;  but  twenty-five 
minutes   of   folk-dancing  prove   decidedly   damaging  on   the 
immediate    mental    efficiency.     The    short    periods    seem    to 
furnish  rest  and  relief  from  nervous  strain  without  causing 
distraction    from    the    mental    work    in   hand.     In   the    long 
periods  perhaps  considerable  fatigue  is  produced,  and  also  the 
mental  inertia  prevents   immediate  resumption  of  the  work 
after  the  long  gymnastic  exercises. 

6.  Lunches. — Lunches  in  the  five-hour  school  session  are  of 
no  immediate  benefit  to  the  mental  work.     Indeed,  the  indica- 
tions are  that  the  lunches  are  quite  the  reverse  of  beneficial. 
When  considered  physiologically  this  is  the  thing  to  expect, 
for,  after  eating,  the  blood  is  demanded  in  the  digestive  organs 
until  the  food  is  absorbed.     Even  the  attempt  to  study  imme- 
diately after  eating  does  an  injustice  to  the  digestion  by  tend- 
ing to  draw  a  large  blood  supply  to  the  brain.     Such  facts  do 
not,  however,  take  away  the  responsibiltiy  of  providing  good 
nutrition  for  the  children  at  school  as  well  as  at  home.     It 
would  be   cruel   and   foolhardy   to  neglect   the   food   supply 
required  for  the  child's  growth  and  development  even  at  the 
expense  of  a  little  immediate  mental  efficiency. 

7.  Singing. — Singing  for  ten  minutes  increases  the  mental 
efficiency. 

8.  Daily  Variations. — There  is  a  small  variation  of  efficiency 
for  different  times  of  the  day.     The  working  ability  appears 
to  reach  its  maximum  from  10  to  11  a.  m.  and  then  drops  off 
somewhat  till  between  12  and  1  p.  m.,  to  rise  again  till  the 
close  of  school  at  2  p.  m.     The  advantages  of  the  early  periods 


48  WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

of  the  day  are  not  so  great  as  some  would  claim  for  them. 
One  period  seems  about  as  good  as  another  for  any  particular 
subject,  like  algebra.  The  alternation  of  easy  and  difficult 
subjects  in  the  daily  program  is,  however,  valuable  for  the 
change  and  relaxation  which  it  affords. 

9.  Rhythmic  Fluctuations. — In  continuous  work  high  and 
low  efficiency  alternate  in  a  kind  of  rhythmic  flow.     These 
waves  of  effort  provide  for  a  rest  and  recuperation  and  in  this 
way  prevent  the  fatigue  from  becoming  excessive.     This  is  a 
very  important  fact  for  teachers,  who  should  provide  for  the 
up  and  down  swing  in  the  working  ability  of  their  pupils. 
Every  one  knows  the  difficulty  of  attending  for  an  hour  to  a 
sermon  or  lecture  which  moves  in  the  even  tenor  of  its  way, 
with   no   variation    to   break   the   monotony.     The    attention 
swings  away  and  then  comes  back  to  the  subject.     Blessed  is 
the  preacher,  teacher  or  lecturer  who  has  the  power  of  bring- 
ing back  to  his  line  of  thought  the  wandering  minds  of  his 
audience!     And  some  of  them  can  do  it.     Observe  the  rise 
and  fall  of  intensity  in  the  successful  lecturer  and  the  occa- 
sional interspersion  of  anecdote  and  joke  with  more  serious 
matter.     He  needs  to  get  his  discourse  and  his  audience  to 
swing  together  and  make  his  climaxes  on  the  rising  tide  of 
attention.     It  is  not  required  that  teachers  practice  this  degree 
of  art,  but  it  is  important  that  they  diversify  their  teaching 
and  thus  provide  for  the  natural  swing  of  attention  in  their 
pupils. 

10.  Length    of   Recitations. — While   variation    in    teaching 
must  be  encouraged,  the  power  of  prolonged  attention  must 
also    be    cultivated.     The    recitation    periods    must    be    long 
enough  in  the  advanced  grades  to  allow   full   swing  of  the 
pupil's  ability  for  a  time  on  the  lesson,  and  must  not  be  broken 
up  by  too  many  interruptions.     The  facts  of  rhythmic  move- 
ment and  of  mental  inertia  indicate  the  need  of  considerable 
continuity  of  work.     It  is  impossible  now  to  tell  just  what 
length  and  variation  of  periods  is  best  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
the  children.     From  the  data  shown  in  Plate  I  it  would  seem 
that   in   high   school   girls   the   fatigue   depressions   occur   at 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN.  49 

twenty-minute  intervals,  and  this  would  suggest  the  need  of 
at  least  one  recuperative  variation  in  a  forty-minute  recitation 
period.  It  is  evident  that  younger  children  have  less  power 
of  prolonged  continuous  attention,  and  consequently  in  the 
lower  grades  the  recitation  periods  should  be  very  much 
shorter  than  in  the  upper  grades. 


SAMPLE  TESTS. 


APPENDIX  I  AND  II. 


Subtraction  Multiplication 


I-  9473856825  t.  1379242312 
-2153352403  X  4 


2-  8435762964  2.  1607235413 
-533235  27  0  4 


3  ^7243958^4 


7032159416     4    .  ,  . n , «, - - , 2 
-2071169137     4    621059374^| 


5.    6954004531 

-1460055555     5    3274013589 


6     4555001112 

-2590047017     6.27035614 

X27 


7.    9198899591     7    ,.-..,,, 
-7099819919     7-  18406  325 


8.    5554433022     „    i^oeTAnq 
-2455909077     8"      2^57  4^0  9 


9.    8887776534     9    2345965 
-1088814679  X58 


10.    8974432550     10.  1479073 
.1694390457  X47 


Addition 


Division 


1.  4375343624 
5212-6  25373 

2.  5937567534 
2525662344 

3.  5283896967 
4618978584 

4.  35  12326352 
5  1  3240  1113 
1234141242 

5.  3414256465 
2465292334 
3425222532 

6.  923536726 
864789435 
758694394 

7  540975285 
682953743 
325567679 

8.  2673594729 
1  79235957  8 
448343866  9 

9  564932718 
729884937 
44563  1892 
753498536 


10. 


897411795 
916974739 
497392844 
74848  1553 


1. 


3!  6093960126 


2     26105437498 


3.     6    6785436864 


7928248314 


5     8   928734440 


6.  12  13288856424 


7-  11  15435266781 


15!  3  o  4  5  6  !  8  0  1  5 


9. 


18 


5814562236 


10.  24  52021224960 


54  WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

APPENDIX  III. 

NINTH  GRADE  ALGEBRA  TEST,  SEPTEMBER  23,  1910. 
Part  A  —  Ten  Minutes. 

1.  Find  the  rate  if  the  interest  on  $750  for  6  months  is 
$22.75. 

2.  Find  the  time  if  the  amount  of  $640  at  6%  is  $1,000. 

3.  A  man  is  now  4  times  as  old  as  his  son;  in  20  years  he 
will  be  only  twice  as  old  as  his  son.     Find  age  of  each. 

4.  A  &  B  have  together  $8;  A  &  C  $10;  B  &  C  $12.     How 
much  has  each  ? 

5.  The  difference  of  two  numbers  is  7,  and  their  sum  is  63. 
Find  the  numbers. 

Part  B—Ten  Minutes. 

If  a=l,  b=2,  c=3,  d=4  find  value  of  : 

(1)  ab+bc  —  ac. 

(2)  ^/6bc—  b—  c. 
(B) 


(4)  7(a2+b2)—  2(c2—  d2). 

(5)  d2_c2 


Part  C  —  Ten  Minutes. 

Factor:  (1)  64a2—  b2. 

(2)  16a4—  b4. 

(3)  8a3—  b3. 

(4)  x4-(y+z)4. 

(5)  x3  —  y3  —  3xy(x  —  y). 

Part  D  —  Ten  Minutes. 

1.  Multiply:  x5—  41x—  120  by  x2+4x+5. 

2.  Multiply:  3x2—  2y2+5z2  by  8x2+2y2—  3z2. 

3.  Multiply:  4x+3+  5z2—  6x3  by  4—  6x2—  5x. 

4.  Divide:  x2  —  4y2—  9z2+12yz  by  x+2y—  3z. 

5.  Divide:  5x3—  x-fl—  3x4  by  l+3x2—  2x. 


WINTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 55 

APPENDIX  IV. 
GENERAL  HISTORY  TEST,  DECEMBER  22,  1910. 

(A)  Name  10  ancient  cities.     Locate  each.     Give  an  impor- 
tant date  and  event  connected  with  each. 

(B)  Name  10  rulers.     Tell  where  and  when  each  lived  and 
something  for  which  he  was  noted. 

(C)  Name  10  ancient  battles,  giving  place,  date  and  result 
of  each. 

(D)  Name   10  ancient  military  leaders.     Tell  where  and 
when  each  lived  and  something  for  which  he  was  noted. 

APPENDIX  V. 

NINTH  GRADE  LATIN  TEST,  DECEMBER  21,  1911. 
Part  A— Ten  Minutes. 

1.  Conjugate  venio  in  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  active, 
indicative  and  subjunctive. 

2.  Give  the  principal  parts  and  all  the  infinitives  of  lando, 
and  conjugate   it   in  the  present  tense  indicative   and   sub- 
junctive. 

Part  B—Ten  Minutes. 

1.  Decline:  (1)  Poculum,  (2)  res,  (3)  animal,  (4)  brevis, 
(5)  totus. 

2.  What  classes  of  nouns  belong  to  the  i-  stems?     Illustrate 
with  5  examples. 

Part  C — Ten  Minutes. 
Give  meaning: 

1.  In  English — 

(1)  Sol,  solio  (6)  circumvenio 

(2)  porta-ae  (7)  spero 

(3)  cantus-us  (8)  sentio 

(4)  virtium-i  (9)  utor 

(5)  miror  (10)  credo 


56  W1NTHROP  COLLEGE  BULLETIN. 

2.  In  Latin — 

(1)  Ambassador  (6)  give 

(2)  peace  (7)  see 

(3)  shout  (8)  enjoy 

(4)  reward  (9)  use 

(5)  republic  (10)  go  forward 

Part  D — Ten  Minutes. 

Translate  Latin  into  English,  and  the  English  into  Latin : 

( 1 )  Dux,  cum  castra  munita  essent,  ad  hostis  prosperavit. 

(2)  Consul,  pace  facta,  Romans  venit. 

(3)  The  boy  is  so  lazy  that  he  cannot  learn. 

(4)  He  stays  at  home  that  he  may  not  learn. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

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on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


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